Exam II Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Test II - Essay Example The facts confirm that, the utilization of this understanding has assisted with decreasing the negative result of the war. In February 1848, the Mexican-American war was officially finished by the bargain of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Throughout the following years, the pressure between the United States and the Government of Mexico kept on thundering. The Gadsden Purchase arrangement assisted with settling the event of contest on Texas. The Gadsden Purchase included terrains west of the Rio Grande and south of the Gila River. The reason for the Treaty is for the development of cross-country railroad in United States along a southern street. The Gadsden Purchase is likewise connected to the settlement of the outskirt issues. The key limits of the United States of American have been settled by the usage of the Gadsden Purchase. The Mexican armed force was crushed by the Americans in various fights that constrained Mexicans to give up. The war was considered by the Massachusetts as a wrongdoing. In 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo assisted with giving a large portion of a-million square miles to United States (Tate, 2013). The line of the Gila River and the Rio Grande became worldwide fringe. Also, the officially parted with of extra domain was not acknowledged by President Polk. On September 15, 1853, James Gadsden met with Santa Anna. A verbal guidance has been sent by President Pierce for Gadsden. A specialist for United States financial specialists, Christopher Ward was the person who took verbal guidance to Gadsden. The directions gave exchange alternative for Gadsden for a more noteworthy portion of northern Mexico to 15 million dollars and Lower California for 50 million dollars. The guidance of the President Pierce to sell enormous bit of Mexico was rejected by Santa Anna. Santa Clause Anna need ed to assemble cash to decrease the continuous uprisings. This is the explanation for the utilization of bargain among Gadsden and Santa Anna. Mexican fringe was vigorously attacked by Americans. The Treaty was moreover

The Role of Colors on Maps

The Role of Colors on Maps Cartographers use shading on maps to speak to specific highlights. Shading use is constantly steady on a solitary guide and regularly predictable across various sorts of maps made by various cartographers and distributers. Numerous hues utilized on maps have a relationship to an article or highlight on the ground. For instance, blue is quite often the shading picked for water. Political Maps Political maps, or those that show government limits, as a rule utilize more guide hues than physical maps, which speak to the scene regularly without respect for human alteration, for example, nation or state outskirts. Political maps frequently utilize at least four hues to speak to various nations or inside divisions of nations, for example, states or areas. Blue regularly speaks to water and dark as well as red is every now and again utilized for urban areas, streets, and railroads. Dark likewise shows limits, with contrasting kinds of runs and additionally dabs used to speak to the sort of limit: universal, state, province, or other political region. Physical Maps Physical maps use shading most drastically to show changes in height. A palette of greens frequently shows rises. Dull green as a rule speaks to low-lying land, with lighter shades of green utilized for higher rises. In the following higher rises, physical maps regularly utilize a palette of light earthy colored to dim earthy colored. Such maps usually use reds, white, or purples to speak to the most noteworthy rises appeared on the guide. It is imperative to recollect that on maps that utilization shades of greens, tans, and so forth, shading doesn't speak to ground spread. For instance, indicating the Mojave Desert in green because of low height doesnt imply that the desert is rich with green yields. In like manner, demonstrating mountain tops in white doesn't show that the mountains are topped with ice and snow throughout the entire year. On physical maps, blues are utilized for water, with darker blues speaking to the most profound water. Green-dim, red, blue-dark, or some other shading is utilized for heights underneath ocean level. General-Interest Maps Guides and other general-use maps are frequently a disorder of shading, with a portion of the accompanying plans: Blue: lakes, waterways, streams, seas, stores, thruways, and nearby bordersRed: significant interstates, streets, urban regions, air terminals, uncommon intrigue locales, military destinations, place names, structures, and bordersYellow: developed or urban areasGreen: parks, fairways, reservations, backwoods, plantations, and highwaysBrown: deserts, verifiable destinations, national parks, military reservations or bases, and form (height) linesBlack: streets, railways, roadways, spans, place names, structures, and bordersPurple: expressways, and on U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps, highlights added to the guide since the first review Choropleth Maps Extraordinary maps called choropleth maps use shading to speak to measurable information for a given region. Normally, choropleth maps speak to every province, state, or nation with a shading dependent on the information for that territory. For instance, a typical choropleth guide of the United States shows a state-by-state breakdown of which states casted a ballot Republican (red) and Democratic (blue). Choropleth maps can likewise be utilized to show populace, instructive accomplishment, ethnicity, thickness, future, the pervasiveness of a specific ailment, and considerably more. When mapping certain rates, cartographers who plan choropleth maps frequently utilize various shades of a similar shading, delivering a decent enhanced visualization. For instance, a guide of area by-province per capita salary in a state could utilize a scope of green from light green for the most minimal per-capita pay to dull green for the most noteworthy per-capita pay.

Mercy, Pity, Peace, and Love in Songs of Innocence and Experience - Literature Essay Samples

William Blake, as a libertarian and political writer concerned with Romantic values concerning the freedom of the human spirit and liberty, wrote his ‘Songs of Innocence and Experience’ in an attempt to attack the corrupt political systems and institutions around at the time he was writing during the Industrial Revolution and the Enlightenment; in his songs, Blake proposes rebellion against such systems, alongside setting up his ideal of a Utopia within his ‘Songs of Innocence’, with the virtues of ‘mercy, pity, peace and love’ found in ‘The Divine Image’ aptly summarizing the image of Blake’s Utopia, with such virtues being clearly nowhere to be found in the corrupt society which Blake describes in his ‘Songs of Experience’ in such poems as ‘London’ and ‘Holy Thursday’. One subject of Blake’s social and political protest within his ‘Songs of Innocence and Experience’ is that of the church, as although he himself was a Christian, he can be seen to attack the twisted version of religion which holds destructive ideologies that exploit and damage the vulnerable, ignoring the traditional values of charity and mercy and instead allowing racism and the suffering of children, as see in ‘The Little Black Boy’ and ‘Holy Thursday’ respectively. In ‘The Divine Image’, the speaker (presumably either the voice of Blake or voicing Blake’s thoughts), personifies the virtues of ‘Mercy, Pity, Peace and Love’ and states that these are ‘God, our Father dear’, suggesting that God Himself is the personification of these virtues, that these qualities are what we should be aspiring to within humanity, creating a link between God and humankind as all prayers to ‘Mercy, Pity, Pe ace and Love’ should be directed not just to God but to ‘the human form divine’; through this, Blake can be seen to stress the superlative importance of these qualities of heart within humankind and protesting against those religious followers who act hypocritically in allowing children such as those in ‘The Chimney Sweeper’ or ‘Holy Thursday’ to suffer whilst those in power and the hierarchical church allow for such vast inequalities within society. Blake’s ‘Songs of Innocence’ can be seen to set up a Utopia, much like More’s, where the virtues of mercy, pity, peace and love are abundant and then shown to be lacking in the world described in his ‘Songs of Experience’ which criticize and protest against the corrupt authorities of his day, setting up a proposal for rebellion to establish a more idealized, liberated state. In ‘The Shepherd’, for example, the character of the shepherd can be interpreted as a God-like figure as he acts in a similar way towards his sheep as the omnibenevolent God of the Bible can be seen to act towards humankind, showing love towards his sheep as ‘his tongue shall be filled with praise’ suggesting that he takes a caring and supportive role over his ‘sweet lot’, along with ‘peace’ taking a foreground in the poem as the shepherd is described as ‘watchful’ towards his sheep ‘while they are in pe ace,/For they know when their shepherd is nigh’, alluding to a relationship between the shepherd and his sheep where the sheep place faith in the shepherd as their protector and loving father figure: much like the loving image of God stressed by Blake. In this way, therefore, the virtues of mercy, pity, peace and love as outlined in ‘The Divine Image’ can be seen to play a role in Blake’s description of a Utopian society and his ideal image of religion as a loving, united front between humankind and God, which in turns lends to set up his proposal for rebellion in the ‘Songs of Innocence and Experience’. Blake can further be seen to explore the virtues of mercy, pity, peace and love in his ‘Songs of Innocence’ poem ‘The Little Black Boy’, where a black child who has experienced racial prejudice describes a conversation with his mother who assures him that his ‘soul is white’ and that he will one day go to heaven where God will show him ‘love’. In the poem, the child’s mother can be seen to show him all four qualities of mercy, pity, peace and love as outlined in ‘The Divine Image’ as the boy describes how ‘she took me on her lap and kissed me’ demonstrating a loving, maternal act which shows pity towards the boy who feels as though he is ‘bereaved of light’, alluding to God’s love as ‘light’ as an image is used often by Blake to refer to the presence of God, suggesting that the boy feels as though God doesn’t love him in the same was and the English children ar ound him who are conversely depicted as ‘angels’, and therefore automatically shown love by God. The little boy’s mother then goes on to loving assure the boy that he is just as, if not more so, worthy of God’s love as other children as he has leant to ‘bear the beams of love’ which have caused ‘the black bodies and this sunburnt face’, working to instill a sense of peace of mind within the child who before being told this showed distress at being set apart from the ‘English child’ and seen by those as ‘bereaved of light’. The depiction of God presented by Blake through the loving voice of the mother in the poem shows these virtues further, as He is quoted as saying ‘come out from the grove, my love and care,/And round my golden tent like lambs rejoice’, with the image of a ‘grove’ as a small wood suggesting to a confined, shaded area where perhaps the oppressed such as the †˜little black boy’ metaphorically reside as they are cast away from the rest of society, and the kind tone paired with the imperative of ‘come out’ showing the caring, father-like nature of God as he lovingly, whilst showing pity towards those who have been residing n the ‘grove’, invites the oppressed to ‘like lambs rejoice’ iin his ‘love and care’, the image of the ‘lamb’ being one found throughout Blake’s poetry as a symbol of innocence and purity. With racial prejudice being a focus of Blake’s social and political protest, therefore, the depiction of God as a loving father figure who shows pity and love in particular to all without regard of their race as demonstrated in ‘The Little Black Boy’, acts as a form of protest against the conservative, racist views held by the government of his time and acts as a proposal for rebellion against those who perceive white children as superio r to black children as in the eyes of God, Blake illustrates, individuals of all races are perceived as equal and are equally as worthy as one another of His love. Mercy, pity, peace and love can further be seen as apt descriptions of Blake’s proposal for his rebellion when looking at his own political ideologies, alongside his depictions of these virtues within his poetry. Blake was politically a radical libertarian, who admired Thomas Paine and can be seen to draw from his ideas concerning the advocation for equal political rights and the attacking of hierarchical government and monarchy as laid out in his 1790’s novel ‘The Rights of Man’, and to an extent the attacking of the contradictory claims held by the Christian Church in his ‘The Age of Reason’. These virtues are pertinent throughout his ‘Songs of Innocence’, through, for instance, the narrator of ‘A Dream’ who describes how ‘Pitying, I dropped a tear’, explicitly demonstrating pity towards the emmet who had ‘lost its way’ and in ‘On Another’s Sorrow’ where empathy for those with a ‘falling tear’ is presented as the universal human reaction; mercy as shown in ‘The Chimney Sweeper’ as the oppressed chimney sweep narrator describes how ‘if all do their duty, they need not fear harm’; peace in ‘The Echoing Green’ between the pastoral landscape, the children playing on the green and the elderly folk watching them play; and love shown in a plethora of the songs, one example being in ‘The Little Boy Found’ where a form of caring, parental love is shown both by the presumed figure of God who leads the boy to his mother who shows distress in the loss of her son as ‘her little boy weeping sought’. In his ‘Songs of Experience’, however, Blake’s attention to these virtues as a proposal for rebellion turns towards the cruel injustice that he sees coming from the state and the corrupt authorities of his time, repeatedly using the word ‘chartered’ in ‘London’ as to depict the restrictive nature of the city and using the device of rhetorical question a plethora of times throughout his songs in order to address the reader directly and invite them to question the nature of the state of the time- asking in ‘Holy Thursday’ whether it is a ‘holy thing to see’ for innocent, impoverish children to be treated poorly and ‘reduc’d to misery’, emotively showing the lack of mercy, pity, love and peace which is in fact shown by the state and the Church towards those who are in need. It can be argued, therefore, that ‘mercy, pity, peace and love’ do not make for a fully apt description of Blak e’s proposal for rebellion in his ‘Songs of Innocence and Experience’, but are used to set up an ideal, imagined state before showing the lack of such virtues present in England during the 1800s, with his proposal for rebellion lying moreso in his vivid descriptions of oppression, restriction, and the cruel treatment of those in need in order to encourage his audience to rebel against such a system, by way of peaceful protest as suggested in his chosen form of protest being through his written songs, his values as a Romantic, and through how he stopped supporting the French Revolution despite its aims aligning with his belief due to the fact that it involved violence and the turn of revolutionaries to tyrannical oppressors themselves. The four qualities of mercy, pity, peace and love as laid out in the ‘Songs of Innocence’ poem ‘The Divine Image’ can be seen, to an extent, to be an apt description of Blake’s proposal for rebellion, as he suggests through his featuring these virtues in his depiction of a Utopia in the ‘Songs of Innocence’ that such are the qualities he believes all of humankind should exhibit and that, as seen in ‘The Divine Image’ we should all ‘pray’ to these qualities within both humankind and God whilst forming a united brotherhood with such values at the foreground: however, it could be argued that Blake’s proposal for rebellion more lies in his exploration of oppression of the vulnerable by those in power and his ethos of anti-clericism and anti-establishment illuminating to the audience his proposal for rebellion more vividly than his initial description of an idealized state in his ‘Songs of Innocenceâ€⠄¢.

Develop A Change Management Plan - 1130 Words

Assessment task 2 Develop a change management plan: Change characteristics will include: The scope of the change: The change project will be focusing on involving all the current business stakeholders to participate in any of the business project and get their full commitment. Number of people to be impacted: Impacted people will be 30. Whether they are being impacted the same, or experiencing the change differently: they will experience the change differently as all the required business participants will take the full responsibilities and accountabilities within all the stages of project implementation action plans. †¢ Required changes (processes, systems, job roles, etc): Customer service strategies and plans, Customer service standards and charter and Customer service KRAs and KPIs. †¢ Include a timeframe for the change: From 01/04/2016 – 01/07/2016. 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Feminism And Popular Culture Gender Relations And...

Feminism and popular culture have interacted over the years, each influencing and responding to the other. The media has been a cause of feminist protests, especially because of their representations of men and women’s lives. These portrayals can have an impact on society, as because of their mass distribution, they have the capability to influence the public’s perspective on gender relations and feminist issues. The views of feminism and the ideas that the movement was currently emphasizing can be seen in popular culture’s productions during that time. One critical feminist issue has been the expectations for their physical appearances and lives outside of the home. In fact, Naomi Wolf’s idea of these themes, as described in The Beauty†¦show more content†¦With the destruction of the beauty myth, many businesses would lose customers and profits. Therefore, advertisements and companies pressure women to subscribe to the beauty myth. With these inf luences, â€Å"the more legal and material hindrances women have broken through, the more strictly and heavily and cruelly images of female beauty have come to weigh upon us† (120). The beauty myth has an impact upon popular culture too, as common portrayals of women nearly always present a traditional image of beauty on the screen. This can be seen in two examples of popular media, the reality television show, The Bachelor, and the science fiction film, The Stepford Wives. In both of these cases, the women’s beauty is used to undermine their power and is emphasized as a central reason for their importance to the plot. In the reality television series, The Bachelor, the beauty myth is important to the portrayal of women and the result of the competition. At the beginning, the show focuses on â€Å"†¦twenty-five aspiring wives in revealing cocktail dresses...reminiscent of the Miss America pageant†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Frank 91). 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None Provided1 Essay Thesis Example For Students

None Provided1 Essay Thesis Although the Mothman legacy began nearly forty years ago on a chilly, fall night in 1966, it has since became the stuff legends are made of. It has grown into a phenomenon known all over the world by millions of curious people asking questions such as the following: What really happened? What did these people see? Has it been seen since? Nothing has sparked the worlds imagination and curiosity as has the mystery behind Point Pleasant, West Virginias Mothman. Was there such thing as the Mothman? The details found in all of the facts that I will show you definitely point to yes. You will agree with me after you hear about the first sightings of the Mothman, eyewitness accounts of how these sitings changed their lives, and a look at the medias reports of the incidents that happened during this time. The day before the actual siting of the Mothman, Linda Scarberry was sitting at home alone at around eleven oclock at night, when this awful noise of flapping wings started above her home. I t circled the home and kept hitting the roof, but Linda was too scared to go outside. The next night, while Linda and her husband at the time and another couple were at the TNT area, she found out exactly what that noise was. It was around eleven thirty at night on November 15, 1966. The town of Point Pleasant, West Virginia, was about the be shaken by a series of events like nothing else on the face of the earth. Both couples in the car that very clear, cold night were out chasing parkers. They has just topped a hill when the headlights hit this seven foot tall creature with wings that were visible on its back. The body of it was like a slender, muscular man, and it was flesh-colored. Its face could not be seen, because its eyes simply hypnotized those that were looking at the Mothman. It had one of its wings caught in a guide wire near a section of road close to the power plant and was pulling on its wings with its huge hands, trying to free itself. It quickly pried itself loose a nd ran into the plant, but that was not the last time these two couples ran into the Mothman that very night. It seemed to keep following them, and they saw him various different places within about a half-hour after they initially sighted it. While they were leaving the TNT area, the Mothman was sitting on a sign, and it went straight up into the air very fast. It then followed them down Route 62 while they were going over one hundred miles per hour and hit the top of their car two or three times. The last place that they saw it was on top of the flood wall crouched down with its arms around its legs and its wings tucked against its back. They did not know anything else to do then but to call the cops. The police did not believe them at first, but, after they realized that they were not drinking or on drugs and was tremendously scared, they started believing what the two couples confessed to them. Bibliography:

Ncert Class 12 Sociology Essay Example

Ncert Class 12 Sociology Essay Textbook of Sociology for Class XII SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIA Textbook of Sociology for Class XII M. N. KARNA CONTENTS 1. Structural Processes of Change 2. Cultural Processes of Change 3. State and Social Change 4. Legislation and Democratic Decentralisation 5. Economic Development and Social Change 6. New Groups, Classes and Globalisation 7. Education and Social Change 8. Mass Media and Cultural Change 9. Dissent and Social Change 10. Social Deviance 1 14 25 36 47 57 69 77 86 99 STRUCTURAL PROCESSES OF CHANGE 1 CHAPTER 1 Structural Process of Change Change is a fact of human life. We may not be aware of it in our day-to-day experience but it continues to affect us in one way or the other. A hundred and thousand years might be a moment in the life of rocks and mountains but in human society changes take place in the course of merely a generation or two. Think of a situation in which your grandmother was living in a village where a large number of family members were staying together in one household. She had to maintain purdah and was not allowed to come out of the four walls of the house till she had become old. Now compare it with the condition of your mother. We will write a custom essay sample on Ncert Class 12 Sociology specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Ncert Class 12 Sociology specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Ncert Class 12 Sociology specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Do you not find a change in the structure of your own family, now when only a few members are staying together ? Your uncle is living in another household with his wife and children. Likewise, your grandfather was an agriculturist but your father might have shifted to the urban area to take up a job in a government office. You will notice several corresponding changes even in the life-style of your own family. These alterations have occurred merely in a generation or two. A close look will reveal changes both in the structure and function of family and in patterns of occupations. It is this dimension of change that we intend to study in the present course. Our focus will be on the nature and extent of social change in contemporary Indian society. The study of social change in India is important for several reasons. It tells us how contemporary Indian society is transforming from a traditional society to a modern developed society. It shows how changes are occurring in our social institutions and what are the factors bringing about such changes. It also indicates our achievements as a nation and identifies problems and setbacks in certain areas of our life. Social change is a process, in the sense that it involves a series of events over a period of time. The idea of continuity is implied in it and shows a sequence of operations that bring about change. Thus, the notion of process indicates two major dimensions of social change—its nature and direction. While the nature of change reveals content of change, the direction speaks about the line in which it is moving. We intend to 2 SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIA discuss here both the substance and the factors of change. Sociologists in India have analysed the process of social change under two broad categories—structural processes and cultural processes. Structural processes of change are due to a transformation in the network of social relationships. Caste, kinship, family and occupational groups constitute some of the structural realities. Change in these relationships is a structural change. When the traditional agrarian system based on family labour is transformed into agrarian system based on hired labour with a view to produce for the market, we may call it a structural change. The transfor mation of joint family to nuclear family brings about change in structure and function of family. It is through the process of differentiation of roles that structural change takes place. To put it differently, role of a social institution changes due to specific sequence of events making it more effective in the changed situation. In fact, structural differentiation of roles leads to functional specialisation. Reverting to our earlier example, in addition to procreation and rearing of children, joint family performed numerous roles in traditional society in the fields of education, occupation and social security . But after its transformation into nuclear family most of these functions have been taken over by specialised agencies such as schools, economic organisations, government departments and other institutions. Structural change as a result of role differentiation is noticed in almost all domains of social life. You are already familiar with the factors of social change. Therefore, we shall focus on structural processes of social change namely, industrialisation, Westernisation and modernisation. INDUSTRIALISATION Science is an important element of human heritage that produces a systematic knowledge of nature. Technology, on the other hand, is that element which contains the application of this knowledge. In this sense, technology has a utilitarian goal. It has developed mainly due to a desire to apply it for the advantage of common people. This goal has been realised in almost every sphere—industry, agriculture, transport, communication and such other areas. The rapid changes that we experience in our dayto-day life are related to the development of new techniques, new inventions and new modes of production. The application of modern technology in industry has influenced not only our economic life but also our social and cultural system. Industrialisation is a process of technological advancement from domestic production with simple tools to large-scale factory based production. However, sociologically, the term implies a process of economic and social changes arising out of the change in the structure of industry. Industrialisation involves a broad range of social factors that deeply affect the character of social STRUCTURAL PROCESSES OF CHANGE 3 life. For instance, factories give rise to elaborate division of labour, new work culture, etc. Industrialisation in India A wide network of domestic and cottage industries was existing in India even prior to British colonial rule. But modern large-scale industry came only during the later part of the nineteenth century after the Industrial Revolution in Europe. Between the 1850’s when the first major industries started, and 1914 India had established the world’s largest jute manufacturing industry, the fifth largest cotton textile industry and the third largest railway network. In this manner, India had almost a century of industrial development on the eve of the independence. After independence, the pace of industrialisation was significantly accelerated during the periods of FiveYear Plans. It saw the expansion and diversification of the industrial structure with the establishment of several new units. In 1951, there were only two major units producing iron and steel. The number of such major steel plants increased to six by 1980s with the installed capacity of 80 lakh tonnes. The country has made considerable progress in the field of new industries, agricultural tractors, electronics, fertiliser etc. , which were practically nonexistent in 1951. The textile industry is no longer confined to cotton and jute textiles but to a large number of units producing different types of synthetic fibres. An important feature of industrial growth after independence has been the rapid expansion of the public sector enterprises. These produce diverse products such as steel, coal, heavy and light engineering goods, locomotives, aircraft, petroleum products and fertilizers. A brief sketch of industrial growth in India may give us an idea of the extent of industrialisation that has taken place in the country since attaining independence. Social Consequences of Industrialisation We may now turn our attention to the economic and social consequences of industrialisation. Our economic life has witnessed tremendous structural change in the wake of industrialisation. Production has been brought substantially to the factory. Elaborate division of labour, pecialisation of tasks and the growth of a class of industrial workers have resulted from changes in the industrial system. Similarly, the nature of agricultural production has also changed because of change in agricultural practices. With the alteration in agricultural practices, alterations have also occurred in agrarian relations and the life-styles of farm househo lds. Moreover, industrialisation has changed the family mode of production and women are increasingly found in farms, firms and factories to perform different tasks. The new economic role has placed women in the new 4 SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIA nvironment where they experience a changed social status. This new role of women in turn has brought greater participation of women in decision making in the family. These changes have occurred due to occupational diversification that has been brought about by industrialisation. For example, it cannot be expected that all working members of a family will get jobs in similar occupations and professions and will be posted at the same place. One member, for example, may be engaged in the cultivation of family land in Uttar Pradesh and the other may take up an employment as an engineer in Chennai. Under these circumstances, the break-up of a joint family into small nuclear families is natural. Such structural changes are also accompanied by functional distinctive-ness. For example, the traditional joint family as mentioned earlier, was a multifunctional institution. It had innumerable economic, educational, recreational, socialisational and biological functions. Now, except for the biological and socialisational functions of the family, most of the other functions have been taken over by formal economic organisations, associations and the state. Development of transport and communication have resulted in far reaching consequences. Railways, automobiles and marine transportations have not only increased spatial mobility but have also quickened the rate of internal and external migration. A large number of people are migrating from rural to urban areas to take up new occupations. Similarly, both skilled and unskilled women and men are travelling out of the country in search of better careers. Changes are also witnessed in the system of social stratification. Significant changes are observed in the case of caste system, which is an important structural reality of Indian social system. The separation between caste and occupation is a significant change that has taken place. The occupational diversification has made several occupations ‘caste free’. It is, however, more in towns than in villages and even greater in the large industrialised cities. A considerable number of people located earlier at the lower levels of caste hierarchy and engaged in caste-based occupations are now entering into new occupations. Likewise, castes considered higher in the hierarchy are coming forward for occupations not preferred earlier. The members of lower castes dispensed with traditional occupations primarily because they were considered ‘impure’ and were endowed with low status besides being less profitable. On the other hand, members of upper castes such as Brahmin, Rajput and Kayasth in North India were compelled to take up work like manual labourers, peons in offices and such other low status jobs. In addition to modifications in occupational structure and mobility, changes are seen in the inter-caste power structure. We have so far analysed the socio-economic consequences of STRUCTURAL PROCESSES OF CHANGE 5 industrialisation but we should not overlook one basic fact in this regard. The way in which a society responds to the industrial changes depends on its own creative genius and social environment. We, therefore, find a substantial difference between one society and another in the degree to which changes take place as a result of industrialisation. impersonal. The relationship is based on a complex division of labour and is contractual in nature. Urbanisation in India India is a land of villages and will remain so for decades to come. However, it does not mean that cities have been absent from this vast sub-continent. Existence of cities in India can be traced back to as early as third millennium B . C . Archeological excavations reveal older traces of urbanisation. Historians tell us that a truly urban civilisation emerged in the Indus Valley with Mohenjodaro and Harappa as important urban centres. In addition to these two cities, several other urban settlements such as Kalibangan in northern Rajasthan, Lothal in Gujarat and Banwali in Haryana also emerged as the major centres. In the subsequent period, urbanisation was not confined to a particular area. This phase of urbanisation finds mention in the postVedic literature in the north and Sangam literature in the south. The Buddhist texts also mention the existence of the urban centres. Furthermore, urbanisation during the medieval times was spread out from Srinagar in the north to Madurai in the south. This period was marked more by the revival of old cities than the establishment of new cities and towns. These preindustrial cities, however, existed primarily as centres of pilgrimage, as royal capitals and as trading centres. Cities with modern industrial character grew in India only after the URBANISATION Urbanisation is a process by which people instead of living in villages start living in towns and cities. It involves a mode by which agriculture-based habitat is transformed into nonagricultural urban habitat. The growth of urban centres is the result of accelerated industrial and service functions. An increase in the size of towns and cities leading to growth of urban population is the most significant dimension of urbanisation. These centres are essentially non-agricultural in character. Urbanisation as a structural process of change is related to industrialisation but it is not always the result of industrialisation. In certain cases, urbanisation has taken place even without industrialisation. Industrialisation is always connected with economic growth but we cannot say the same about urbanisation. Urban environment produces a particular kind of social life which Lois Wirth, a core member of the Chicago School, calls urbanism. Social life in cities is more formal and 6 SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIA contact with the West. The process of urbanisation was accelerated during the British colonial regime. The British Indian administration promoted urbanisation on a large scale. The major port towns of Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai owe their beginning, growth and importance to the colonial efforts. Similarly, regional summer capitals were established in remote mountainous areas like Srinagar, Shillong and Shimla. The princely states did not develop as fast but even they had capital towns. Some of the princely states like Hyderabad, Indore, Jaipur and Mysore had population exceeding one lakh. The urban scenario changed remarkably after independence. The proportion of urban population to the total population increased from 17. 6 per cent in 1951 to 25. 7 per cent in 1991. The number of cities with population of one million or more increased from 5 to 23 during the same period. According to the census of 2001 urban population stands at 27. 78 per cent and number of cities having population more than one million has increased to 35. The noteworthy growth of urban population after independence has been largely due to the rapid increase in population, ruralurban migration, city-centred industrialisation and the over all neglect of villages. The emerging trends of urbanisation in India reveal that urban migration is fairly significant. A large number of people from rural areas are shifting not only to big cities but even to medium-sized cities and small towns. Distance is not a barrier. One readily finds villagers moving from farflung areas of north Indian state to the cities in south India. Migrants are mainly employed in manufacturing and service occupations. Besides, the seasonal migration of unskilled labourers, too, has become common. We find labourers from Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa working in agricultural farms of Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh. Labourers begin with seasonal migration and later on start settling permanently in areas of their choice. Social Effects of Urbanisation Let us now turn to the social effects of accelerated urbanisation. Urbanisation has altered the structure of joint family as a result of occupational diversification. Consequently, the functions of family and kinship have declined considerably. The traditional family norms are relaxed and interpersonal relationships have become more formal. An urban child now grows within much smaller world. No kinsmen are available in nuclear family to take care of her/ him. The child has to select playmates outside the family. In this manner, the child develops a new type of personality characterised by ideas of freedom and innovation. Such a situation is remarkably different from the environment of dependence found in a joint family. The nature of love and affection in interpersonal relationship has also changed. While children and STRUCTURAL PROCESSES OF CHANGE 7 their mothers receive considerable attention, sentiments and attachment towards other relatives have weakened. Likewise, the division of domestic duties between wife and husband is changing in the urban settings. They both share domestic duties, as there is no other adult member available to share the burden. Thus, social life in urban areas faces isolation due to diminishing kinship obligations. Several ties that formerly bound members of the family to group and community life are now broken. Consequently, the quality of human relationships tends to become more formal and impersonal. Another visible change is in the domain of caste identity. Urban dwellers participate in networks that include persons of several castes. Individual achievement and modern status symbols have become more important than caste identity. Caste norms are not strictly maintained which is manifest in commensal relations, marital alliances and in occupational relations. It is, thus, possible to suggest that urban way of life has made people think more as individuals than as members of a particular caste. The importance of ascription as the basis of social status is declining and the significance of achievement is taking its place. The level of education, nature of occupation and the level of income are now major indicators of one’s achievement in an urban setup. Therefore, people recognise education, occupation and income as prerequisites for higher ocial status. It does not mean that the achieved status has completely replaced ascribed status and class has fully overshadowed caste. It is, however, necessary to clarify that changes brought about by urbanisation have not altogether replaced the traditional patterns of family, kinship and caste. They go through adaptations and their functions are not completely erod ed. Urban Problems We have already seen how urbanisation is proceeding at a considerable pace in India. It has affected different domains of people’s life. The expansion of urban centres has also given rise to a variety of problems. The physical space is dingy, quality of life is poor and urban governance is unimaginative. Overcrowding and pollution, sub-standard housing and slums, crime and delinquency, alcoholism and drug abuse are a few of them. We shall discuss some of them which have far reaching consequences for the country. Urban overcrowding is the result of the massive size of India’s urban population. Its impact is visible in declining services in the areas of housing, water supply, sanitation, transport, power supply and employment opportunity. Increasing number of homeless people, high rate of rent and a scramble for the few available houses are commonly found in most of the cities and towns. The density of urban population in India works out to be around 3, 500 persons 8 SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIA per square kilometre in 1991. This is more than the accepted norm of 400 per square kilometre. Thus, urban areas have more people than they can support with the available infrastructure. Related to the problem of housing and overcrowding is the problem of slums. The slum is an area of dingy neglected houses where people live in poverty without minimum civic amenities. The estimates of India’s urban population living in slums vary widely. However, according to an estimate, not less than 45 million people were living in slums in 1995 and as the urban population is increasing fast, their number must have had increased by now. It is said that the Indian population living in slums is more than the total population of about 107 countries of the world. Generally, the larger a city, the more the people live in slums. Naturally, metros like Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata have more slums than the small and medium size towns. In 1991, slum-dwellers formed 45 per cent of the population in Mumbai, 44 per cent in Delhi and 42 per cent in Kolkata. The situation is no better in other metropolises like Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmadabad etc. In reality, the problems of slums are multiplying in the wake of city’s incapacity to meet the rising demands of growing population. Pollution is another major problem of cities. There are several sources of rising pollution. Cities discharge 40 to 60 per cent of their entire sewage and industrial effluents into the adjoining rivers. The smaller towns ump garbage and excreta into the nearest waterways through their open drains. Likewise, urban industries pollute the atmosphere with smoke and gases from their old chimneys. Vehicular emission in Delhi accounts for 64 per cent of its air pollution. In fact, Delhi has the dubious distinction of being one of the most polluted cities in the world. The poison that we put in the environment comes back to us through air , water and food. It gradually causes diseases and disorders making life miserable and hazardous. The issue of environmental pollution in urban areas has been recognised and steps have been taken to ease the situation. Even the Supreme Court of India intervened and ordered closure of polluting industrial units in Delhi. Recently, the use of nonpolluting Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) has been made mandatory for buses and three-wheelers in Delhi as per the order of the Supreme Court. There are a number of other problems faced by urban centres which are not discussed here for the sake of brevity. Important among them are the problems of urban poverty, urban planning and urban governance. MODERNISATION Modernisation is both an idea and a process. As it is an idea, there is no agreement among social scientists on its meaning and interpretation. In the decades after the Second World War it was believed in industrial capitalist STRUCTURAL PROCESSES OF CHANGE 9 countries such as Britain and the United States that the key to economic development in the Third World was modernisation. The concept of modernisation, thus, emerged as an explanation of how these societies developed through capitalism. By providing such an explanation Western scholars desired to convince the underdeveloped countries like India that economic development was possible under capitalism. According to this approach, modernisation depends primarily on introduction of technology and the knowledge required to make use of it. Besides, several social and political prerequisites have been identified to make modernisation possible. Some of these prerequisites are: 1. increased levels of education, 2. development of mass media, 3. accessible transport and communication, 4. democratic political institutions, 5. more urban and mobile population, 6. nuclear family in place of extended family, 7. complex division of labour, 8. declining public influence of religion, and; 9. eveloped markets for exchange of goods and services in place of traditional ways of meeting such needs. Modernisation is, thus, supposed to be the result of the presence of these prerequisites in the social system. It is clear that the term modernisation has been used here in a very broad sense. We, therefore, find different views about the scope and area to be covered by the concept of modernisation. Some soc iologists limit modernisation to its structural aspect, others emphasise its cultural dimension. A few studies highlight the issue of political modernisation and still others analyse its psychological meaning. Of course, the treatment of the concept in terms of it being a process of social change is found in Learner’s writing. Daniel Lerner in his essay on ‘Modernisation’, included in Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, explains modernisation in these words: â€Å"Modernisation is the current term for an old process — the process of social change whereby less developed societies acquired characteristics common to more developed societies. † He further writes, â€Å"Modernisation, therefore, is the process of social change in which development is the economic component. Obviously this understanding of the term corresponds with the meaning which we have given to the term at the beginning of our discussion. Accordingly, modernisation is a process of change, which takes a country from underdevelopment to development. It produces social environment for economic development. The growth in industrialisation, urbanisation, national income and per capita income are taken as criteria of development. However, while accepting the economic criteria of development, some sociologists have added non-economic 10 SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIA riteria to judge development. They argue that rising output alone is not sufficient to assess the level of development. A society has to move from rising output to self-sustaining growth. Therefore, non-economic criteria such as the level of education, function of media, growth of communication and social norms conducive to change have to be taken into consideration. The meaning of modernisation given above incorporates primarily, structural aspects of change. In other words, with modernisation structural transformation takes place in economy, polity and social institutions. It is to be noted here that the concept of modernisation has also been explained in cultural terms. In this sense, modernisation implies change in values and attitudes. Modernity involves values and norms that are universal in nature. Explaining this aspect of moder nisation Yogendra Singh suggests that modernisation implies a rational attitude towards issues and their evaluation from a universal viewpoint. Thus, technological advancement and economic growth are not the sole criterion to judge the level of modernisation of a society. The commitment to scientific world-view and humanistic ideas are equally important. Moreover, the idea of modernisation has also been analysed in terms of the paired concepts of tradition and modernity. It has been argued that modernity stands as opposite of tradition. In this sense, all the underdeveloped societies are characterised as traditional and the developed societies as modern. Modernisation, thus, implies a change from tradition to modernity. Change occurs, according to this view, in predictable direction. In other words, in order to modernise, every society has to follow the same direction and adopt a similar path. All the existing values and structures have to be replaced by the new values and structures. Nonetheless, sociologists from the developing countries are critical of this understanding of modernisation. They maintain that modernisation does not stand as a polar opposite to tradition. Traditional values and institutions are not necessarily discarded while taking up new values in the process of change. Society adopts new values because they are considered more efficient and rewarding. In view of this, these sociologists hold that modernisation would develop typical forms in different societies. Patterns of modernisation, thus, may vary from society to society. The discussion shows that processes of modernisation involve both structural and cultural dimensions. However, given the present context, we shall deal with modernisation primarily as a structural process of change. Modernisation in India Some sociologists make a distinction between social change and modernisation in order to assess the nature of change in the traditional Indian society. Though, social change occurred in traditional India, it was essentially pre-modern in nature. One STRUCTURAL PROCESSES OF CHANGE 11 raditional institution was just replaced by the other and no basic structural change took place in social system and culture. Historically, modernisation in India started from the establishment of the British rule and has continued even after independence. The nature and direction of modernisation during these two phases have been different. Therefore, it is appropriate to examine the processes of moderni sation under two distinct phases — the colonial phase and the post-colonial phase. As has been mentioned earlier, modernisation in India commenced after the arrival of the British rule. The contact with the West brought about far reaching changes in social structure and cultural institutions. Changes were witnessed in almost all important areas of life. The British administration introduced new arrangements in legal, agrarian, educational and administrative domains. Most of these led to structural modernisation. For instance, the bureaucratic system of administration and judiciary introduced by them were based on modern rational norms, which replaced the traditional Indian legal norms, based on the principle of hierarchy and ascription. A similar transformation took place in the system of education and agrarian structure. The Western system of education was introduced towards the middle of the nineteenth century and expanded significantly thereafter. New patter ns of land settlements such as Zamindari, Raiyatwari and Mahalwari covering the whole of British India resulted in systematisation of revenue administration. Some other areas experiencing modernising trends were industrialisation, urbanisation, transport and communication, army and the emergence of industrial working class and so forth. The emergence and growth of a nationalist political leadership was also the result of growing modernisation of Indian society. In fact, the nationalist leadership became so strong towards the early part of the twentieth century that freedom movement itself generated a new culture of modernisation. It is apparent from the above that the colonial phase of modernisation created a wide network of structure and culture which was modern and had an all-India appeal. However, it is important to point out here that during the colonial phase the local regional structures of family, caste and village community remained more or less unaffected by the forces of modernisation. At these levels, the British, by and large, followed a policy of least interference. Consequently, we do not find much change in the structures of family, caste and village. Let us, now, briefly examine the process of modernisation in the postcolonial India. Modernisation process has undergone some fundamental changes after the Independence. Every domain of social system is under the active influence of modernising process. Modernisation has, now, become an integral part of the developmental strategy. 12 SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIA The political system has assumed a new shape after the adoption of a parliamentary form of government based on adult franchise. Political parties have emerged as powerful organs of the system. Thus, democratic political structure has effectively led to increasing political consciousness among people. The process of politicisation has, further, been accelerated through the Panchayati Raj institutions. The foundations of traditional family structure have come under the influence of legal reforms in marriage and inheritance. The family introduced egalitarian norms in family leading to raised status of women. Similarly, caste has assumed new functional roles. It has acquired an associational character. New consciousness has emerged among dalits. Increasing role of caste in politics is a pointer to this trend. Moreover, land reforms, too, have brought structural transformation in agrarian social structure. However, it is pertinent to call attention to the fact that modernisation in India has not been a uniformly progressive movement. Two crucial issues may be pointed out in this regard. First, in the process of modernisation several traditional institutions and activities have been reinforced. For example, religious pre